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1Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences-International Campus, Tehran, Iran
2Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
3Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis Unit, Communicable and Non-Communicable Diseases Control Directorate, Ministry of Health, Khartoum, Sudan
4National Tuberculosis Reference Laboratory, National Public Health Laboratory, Ministry of Health, Khartoum, Sudan
5The Epidemiological Laboratory (Epi-Lab), Khartoum, Sudan
©2019, Korean Society of Epidemiology
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Prevalence of Tuberculosis by Automated GeneXpert Rifampicin Assay and Associated Risk Factors Among Presumptive Pulmonary Tuberculosis Patients at Ataye District Hospital, North East Ethiopia
Determinants of Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis in Southern Ethiopia: A Case–Control Study
Characteristics | Cases (n=430) | Controls (n=860) | Total (n=1,290) | p-value |
---|---|---|---|---|
Age (yr) | ||||
Mean±SD | 35.31±13.17 | 38.25±16.12 | 0.001 | |
Median | 32.00 | 34.00 | ||
Sex | ||||
Male | 300 (69.7) | 606 (70.4) | 906 (70.2) | 0.796 |
Female | 130 (30.3) | 254 (29.6) | 384 (29.7) | |
Marital status | ||||
Unmarried | 167 (38.8) | 328 (38.1) | 495 (38.4) | 0.019 |
Married | 241 (56.0) | 494 (57.4) | 735 (56.9) | |
Divorce | 12 (2.8) | 9 (1.0) | 21 (1.6) | |
Widow | 8 (1.9) | 29 (3.4) | 37 (2.9) | |
Separated | 2 (0.5) | 0 (0.0) | 2 (0.2) | |
Education level | ||||
Without education | 60 (14.1) | 192 (22.3) | 252 (19.5) | <0.001 |
Khalwa | 39 (9.2) | 55 (6.4) | 94 (7.3) | |
Primary | 129 (29.9) | 220 (25.6) | 349 (27.1) | |
Secondary | 117 (26.8) | 240 (27.9) | 357 (27.7) | |
Diploma | 8 (1.9) | 1 (0.1) | 9 (0.7) | |
University or postgraduate | 77 (18.1) | 152 (17.7) | 229 (17.7) | |
Meals (per day) | ||||
One | 5 (1.2) | 0 (0.0) | 5 (0.4) | <0.001 |
Two | 85 (19.7) | 111 (12.9) | 196 (15.2) | |
Three | 322 (74.9) | 743 (86.4) | 1,065 (82.5) | |
More than three | 18 (4.2) | 6 (0.7) | 24 (1.9) | |
Means of transport | ||||
By foot | 6 (1.4) | 1 (0.1) | 7 (0.5) | 0.001 |
Public transport | 403 (93.7) | 842 (97.9) | 1,245 (96.5) | |
Private car | 20 (4.7) | 16 (1.9) | 36 (2.8) | |
Motorcycle | 1 (0.2) | 1 (0.1) | 2 (0.2) | |
Time to reach health center (hr) | ||||
Mean±SD | 2.2±1.4 | 1.9±1.2 | 0.151 | |
Median | 1.2 | 1.5 | ||
No. of family members (per room) | ||||
Mean±SD | 7.5±3.6 | 8.3±3.6 | <0.001 | |
Median | 7.0 | 8.0 | ||
Recent migration (within 6 mo) | ||||
Yes | 38 (8.8) | 15 (1.7) | 53 (4.1) | 0.022 |
No | 392 (91.2) | 845 (98.3) | 1,237 (95.9) | |
Permanent migration from birthplace | ||||
Yes | 144 (33.5) | 235 (27.3) | 379 (29.4) | <0.001 |
No | 286 (66.5) | 625 (72.7) | 911 (70.6) | |
Contact with TB patients | ||||
Yes | 97 (22.6) | 58 (6.8) | 155 (12.0) | <0.001 |
No | 309 (71.9) | 783 (91.0) | 1,092 (84.7) | |
I don’t remember | 24 (5.5) | 19 (2.2) | 43 ( 3.3) | |
Contact with MDR-TB patients | ||||
Yes | 64 (14.9) | 2 (0.2) | 66 (5.1) | <0.001 |
No | 339 (78.8) | 844 (98.2) | 1,183 (91.7) | |
I don’t remember | 27 (6.3) | 14 (1.6) | 41 (3.2) | |
Weight | ||||
Mean±SD | 51.3±10.1 | 63.0±13.5 | <0.001 | |
Median | 50.5 | 65.0 | ||
History of previous treatment | ||||
Yes | 292 (67.9) | 26 (3.0) | 318 (24.7) | <0.001 |
No | 138 (32.1) | 834 (97.0) | 972 (75.3) | |
Interruption of TB treatment | ||||
Yes | 162 (37.7) | 18 (2.1) | 180 (14.0) | <0.001 |
No | 268 (62.3) | 842 (97.9) | 1,110 (86.0) | |
Diabetes | ||||
Yes | 30 (7.0) | 46 (5.3) | 76 (5.9) | 0.242 |
No | 400 (93.0) | 814 (94.7) | 1,214 (94.1) | |
Fever | ||||
Yes | 242 (56.3) | 379 (55.9) | 723 (54.0) | 0.905 |
No | 188 (43.7) | 370 (44.1) | 567 (46.0) | |
Imprisonment | ||||
Yes | 52 (12.1) | 32 (3.7) | 84 (6.5) | <0.001 |
No | 378 (87.9) | 828 (96.3) | 1,206 (93.5) | |
Travel abroad at least once | ||||
Yes | 64 (14.9) | 74 (8.6) | 138 (10.7) | 0.001 |
No | 366 (85.1) | 786 (91.4) | 1,152 (89.3) | |
Response to treatment phase | ||||
Intensive | 306 (71.2) | 683 (79.4) | 989 (76.7) | 0.001 |
Continuation | 124 (28.8) | 177 (20.6) | 301 (23.3) | |
HIV | ||||
Positive | 4 (0.9) | 18 (2.1) | 22 (1.7) | 0.128 |
Negative | 426 (99.9) | 842 (97.9) | 1,268 (98.3) |
Variables | OR (95% CI) | p-value | aOR (95% CI) | p-value |
---|---|---|---|---|
Age (yr) | ||||
18-24 | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | ||
25-44 | 1.36 (1.01, 1.82) | 0.040 | 3.86 (2.30, 6.48) | <0.001 |
45-64 | 0.86 (0.60, 1.22) | 0.408 | 4.29 (2.13, 8.28) | <0.001 |
>64 | 0.42 (0.23, 0.75) | 0.004 | 2.09 (0.79, 5.59) | 0.136 |
Sex | ||||
Female | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | ||
Male | 1.06 (0.82, 1.37) | 0.796 | 1.98 (1.26, 3.09) | 0.003 |
Education level | ||||
Without education | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | ||
Khalwa | 2.24 (1.37, 3.74) | 0.001 | 1.91 (0.75, 4.85) | 0.174 |
Primary | 1.84 (1.30, 2.69) | 0.001 | 1.51 (0.79, 2.86) | 0.213 |
Secondary | 1.53 (1.08, 2.24) | 0.017 | 1.97 (1.03, 3.76) | 0.040 |
Diploma | 25.63 (3.13, 208.83) | 0.003 | 20.18 (1.78, 228.58) | 0.015 |
University or postgraduate | 1.62 (1.08, 2.41) | 0.018 | 2.33 (1.16, 4.67) | 0.017 |
Time to reach health center | 1.00 (0.98, 1.08) | 0.187 | - | - |
Weight | 0.92 (0.91, 0.93) | <0.001 | 0.89 (0.87, 0.91) | <0.001 |
History of previous TB treatment | ||||
No | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | ||
Yes | 67.07 (43.72, 105.35) | <0.001 | 54.85 (30.48, 98.69) | <0.001 |
Interruption of TB treatment | ||||
No | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | ||
Yes | 28.20 (17.04, 46.89) | <0.001 | 7.62 (3.16, 18.34) | <0.001 |
Contact with MDR-TB patients | ||||
No | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | ||
Yes | 3.55 (2.30, 5.64) | <0.001 | 5.14 (2.46, 10.75) | |
Contact with TB patients | ||||
No | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | ||
Yes | 2.33 (1.71, 3.17) | <0.001 | 1.64 (0.96, 2.80) | |
Water pipe smoking | ||||
No | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | ||
Yes | 4.24 (2.96, 6.06) | <0.001 | 3.23 (1.73, 6.04) | <0.001 |
Cigarette smoking | ||||
No | 1.00 (reference) | - | - | |
Yes | 2.33 (1.76, 3.01) | <0.001 | - | - |
No. of family members | ||||
No | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | - | |
Yes | 0.93 (0.87, 0.97) | <0.001 | 0.92 (0.87, 0.97) | 0.002 |
Internal migration | ||||
No | - | - | 1.00 (reference) | |
Yes | - | - | 3.88 (1.37, 10.96) | 0.010 |
Imprisonment | ||||
No | 1.00 (reference) | - | - | |
Yes | 3.56 (2.25, 5.62) | <0.001 | - | - |
Travel abroad | ||||
No | 1.00 (reference) | - | - | |
Yes | 1.85 (1.29, 2.65) | 0.001 | - | - |
IDPs | ||||
No | 1.00 (reference) | - | - | |
Yes | 2.03 (0.93, 4.42) | 0.074 | - | - |
Response to treatment | ||||
Continuation phase | 1.00 (reference) | - | - | |
Intensive phase | 1.50 (1.19, 2.04) | 0.001 | - | - |
HIV status | ||||
No | 1.00 (reference) | - | - | |
Yes | 0.44 (0.14, 1.30) | 0.139 | - | - |
Recent migration (within 6 mo) | ||||
No | 1.00 (reference) | - | - | |
Yes | 5.46 (2.96, 10.04) | <0.001 | - | - |
Means of transport to reach TB treatment center | ||||
By foot | 1.00 (reference) | - | - | |
Public transport | 0.07 (0.01, 0.66) | 0.019 | - | - |
Private car | 0.22 (0.02, 1.91) | 0.165 | - | - |
Motorcycle | 0.16 (0.72, 49.83) | 0.097 | - | - |
Values are presented as number (%). SD, standard deviation; TB, tuberculosis; MDR-TB, multidrug-resistant tuberculosis; HIV, human immunodeficiency virus.
MDR-TB, multidrug-resistant tuberculosis; OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval; aOR, adjusted odds ratio; TB, tuberculosis; IDP, internally displaced person; HIV, human immunodeficiency virus.