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1Clinical Trial Center, Ewha Womans University Mokdong Hospital, Seoul, Korea
2Department of Preventive Medicine, Ewha Womans University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
3Department of Preventive Medicine, Chung-Ang University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
4Advanced Biomedical Research Institute, Ewha Womans University Seoul Hospital, Seoul, Korea
5College of Nursing, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, Korea
6Graduate Program in System Health Science and Engineering, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, Korea
© 2022, Korean Society of Epidemiology
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare for this study.
FUNDING
None.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
Conceptualization: Lee HA. Data curation: Lee HA, Lee HJ. Formal analysis: Lee HA, Lee HJ. Funding acquisition: None. Methodology: Lee HA, Park HS, Park B. Project administration: Lee HA. Visualization: Lee HA, Lee HJ. Writing – original draft: Lee HA. Writing – review & editing: Lee HA, Lee HJ, Park B, Shin Y, Park HJ, Park HS.
Characteristics | Total |
Boys |
Girls |
|||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2019 (before COVID-19) | 2020 (during COVID-19) | p-value for 2020 vs. 2019 | 2019 (before COVID-19) | 2020 (during COVID-19) | p-value for 2020 vs. 2019 | 2019 (before COVID-19) | 2020 (during COVID-19) | p-value for 2020 vs. 2019 | ||
Sex (male) | 233 (52.3) | 190 (55.3) | 0.457 | - | - | - | - | |||
Age (yr) | 15.3 (15.07, 15.43) | 15.1 (14.85, 15.39) | 0.437 | 15.3 (15.06, 15.59) | 15.3 (14.88, 15.68) | 0.854 | 15.2 (14.91, 15.43) | 14.9 (14.62, 15.24) | 0.251 | |
Household income | ||||||||||
Low | 49 (12.5) | 23 (6.8) | 0.132 | 25 (11.8) | 11 (4.9) | 0.018 | 24 (13.2) | 12 (9.1) | 0.427 | |
Medium-low | 129 (27.4) | 89 (24.1) | 66 (28.5) | 40 (18.8) | 63 (26.2) | 49 (30.6) | ||||
Medium-high | 133 (31.5) | 132 (39.2) | 69 (31.3) | 75 (40.1) | 64 (31.7) | 57 (38.0) | ||||
High | 145 (28.7) | 98 (30.0) | 72 (28.4) | 63 (36.2) | 73 (28.9) | 35 (22.3) | ||||
Food security | ||||||||||
Low | 0 (0.0) | 1 (0.3) | 0.036 | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0.017 | 0 (0.0) | 1 (0.6) | 0.468 | |
Medium-low | 5 (1.2) | 9 (3.5) | 1 (0.6) | 5 (3.1) | 4 (1.9) | 4 (3.8) | ||||
Medium-high | 164 (38.8) | 105 (29.6) | 90 (42.1) | 58 (28.3) | 74 (35.2) | 47 (31.3) | ||||
High | 288 (60.0) | 228 (66.7) | 142 (57.3) | 127 (68.6) | 146 (62.9) | 101 (64.3) | ||||
Nutrition and food intake | ||||||||||
Total energy (kcal) | 2,039.7 (1,951.6, 2,127.8) | 1,955.1 (1,866.6, 2,043.7) | 0.173 | 2,237.2 (2,104.5, 2,369.9) | 2,186 (2,048.3, 2,323.7) | 0.600 | 1,823.3 (1,712.4, 1,934.3) | 1,669.5 (1,559.4, 1,779.6) | 0.051 | |
Average daily fruit intake (g) | 88.5 (72.2, 104.9) | 89.8 (48.7, 130.9) | 0.952 | 80.3 (58.4, 102.2) | 97.7 (29.9, 165.4) | 0.628 | 97.5 (76.1, 118.8) | 80.1 (56.9, 103.4) | 0.280 | |
Average daily vegetable intake (g) | 170.7 (153.9, 188.4) | 149.8 (135.0, 165.4) | 0.071 | 192 (165.5, 220.5) | 178.5 (157.0, 201.3) | 0.443 | 148.8 (129.8, 169.2) | 117.8 (97.3, 140.2) | 0.038 | |
Average daily calcium intake (mg) | 422.1 (395.5, 450.53) | 394.4 (362.7, 428.92) | 0.202 | 449.4 (403.6, 500.1) | 448.8 (398.9, 504.9) | 0.987 | 394.1 (363.6, 427.2) | 336.2 (305.6, 369.8) | 0.012 | |
Average daily vitamin A intake (μgRAE) | 272.2 (246.0, 301.2) | 264.9 (238.4, 294.5) | 0.712 | 311.5 (273.1, 355.5) | 297.5 (257.9, 343.2) | 0.635 | 234.8 (208.5, 264.5) | 229.5 (198.8, 265.0) | 0.811 | |
Average daily sodium intake (mg) | 2,799.4 (2,635.8, 2,973.2) | 2,672.7 (2,482.4, 2877.5) | 0.335 | 3,162.6 (2,888.1, 3,463.3) | 3,182.4 (2,917.0, 3,472.0) | 0.922 | 2,449.2 (2,266.2, 2,647.1) | 2,153.5 (1,942.2, 2,387.7) | 0.054 | |
Average daily fat intake (E%) | 25.1 (24.1, 26.0) | 25.5 (24.4, 26.6) | 0.574 | 25.1 (23.7, 26.4) | 25.7 (24.1, 27.2) | 0.577 | 25.1 (23.9, 26.3) | 25.3 (23.7, 26.8) | 0.838 | |
Average daily sugar intake (g) | 54.7 (50.0, 59.7) | 50.4 (45.9, 55.3) | 0.202 | 53.5 (46.6, 61.5) | 52.7 (46.6, 59.6) | 0.866 | 55.9 (49.8, 62.8) | 47.6 (41.8, 54.2) | 0.065 | |
Indicators of eating behavior | ||||||||||
Family meals | 358 (73.7) | 277 (79.7) | 0.075 | 186 (74.3) | 156 (81.4) | 0.143 | 172 (73.2) | 121 (77.6) | 0.365 | |
Nutrition education and counseling | 150 (30.5) | 109 (27.3) | 0.420 | 71 (27.8) | 58 (25.0) | 0.580 | 79 (33.5) | 51 (30.1) | 0.576 | |
Use of nutrition labels | 116 (26.7) | 87 (25.6) | 0.770 | 47 (21.0) | 41 (22.6) | 0.730 | 69 (32.9) | 46 (29.3) | 0.522 | |
Adequate fruit and vegetable intake (≥ 500 g/day of fruits and vegetables) | 69 (13.8) | 38 (12.6) | 0.718 | 42 (14.8) | 25 (14.5) | 0.950 | 27 (12.6) | 13 (10.3) | 0.548 | |
Adequate calcium intake (above the recommended intake of calcium, but below the upper limit) | 42 (8.0) | 31 (9.2) | 0.593 | 27 (8.6) | 24 (13.8) | 0.118 | 15 (7.4) | 7 (3.5) | 0.119 | |
Adequate vitamin A intake (above the recommended intake of vitamin A, but below the upper limit) | 44 (9.3) | 25 (7.3) | 0.438 | 24 (9.3) | 16 (8.2) | 0.734 | 20 (9.3) | 9 (6.1) | 0.371 | |
Skipping breakfast (≥5 day/wk) | 147 (33.1) | 130 (37.4) | 0.309 | 77 (33.0) | 68 (35.6) | 0.669 | 70 (33.2) | 62 (39.6) | 0.259 | |
Excessive sodium intake (>2,300 mg/day of sodium intake) | 316 (66.3) | 218 (64.3) | 0.624 | 186 (74.2) | 149 (80.0) | 0.258 | 130 (57.6) | 69 (44.9) | 0.028 | |
Excessive fat intake (>30 E%) | 113 (24.4) | 96 (27.2) | 0.449 | 56 (22.6) | 50 (25.1) | 0.616 | 57 (26.4) | 46 (29.8) | 0.534 | |
Excessive sugar intake (≥10 E%) | 300 (63.6) | 210 (62.4) | 0.759 | 142 (57.1) | 110 (57.1) | 0.997 | 158 (70.7) | 100 (68.9) | 0.741 | |
Soft drink consumption (≥5 times/wk) | 36 (7.6) | 52 (14.8) | 0.002 | 19 (7.7) | 34 (17.2) | 0.005 | 17 (7.5) | 18 (11.9) | 0.206 | |
Eating out (≥1/day) | 195 (46.0) | 124 (36.8) | 0.038 | 91 (45.5) | 83 (43.7) | 0.788 | 104 (46.5) | 41 (28.1) | 0.001 |
Variables | Household income |
High-Low (Δ), % | p for High-Low (Δ) | p for the DID | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Low | Medium-low | Medium-high | High | ||||
Family meal | 0.733 | ||||||
2019 | 33 (67.1) | 101 (77.4) | 100 (64.0) | 123 (83.1) | 16.0 | 0.098 | |
2020 | 16 (73.0) | 67 (74.5) | 110 (80.6) | 84 (84.5) | 11.5 | 0.219 | |
Nutrition education and counseling | 0.517 | ||||||
2019 | 18 (40.7) | 43 (29.0) | 43 (25.7) | 46 (33.6) | -7.1 | 0.528 | |
2020 | 8 (28.4) | 28 (27.1) | 39 (23.6) | 34 (32.0) | 3.6 | 0.762 | |
Use of nutrition labels | 0.014 | ||||||
2019 | 9 (20.6) | 28 (19.6) | 38 (33.3) | 41 (29.5) | 8.8 | 0.315 | |
2020 | 10 (48.9) | 31 (33.8) | 28 (18.6) | 17 (22.4) | -26.6 | 0.017 | |
Adequate fruit and vegetable intake (≥500 g/day of fruits and vegetables) | 0.678 | ||||||
2019 | 8 (13.2) | 17 (12.2) | 17 (12.1) | 27 (17.7) | 4.5 | 0.517 | |
2020 | 3 (8.2) | 8 (9.8) | 20 (17.7) | 6 (8.9) | 0.7 | 0.907 | |
Adequate calcium intake (above the recommended intake of calcium, but below the upper limit) | 0.800 | ||||||
2019 | 2 (6.3) | 8 (4.5) | 10 (7.2) | 22 (13.3) | 7.0 | 0.163 | |
2020 | 1 (6.0) | 5 (6.7) | 13 (10.1) | 12 (10.8) | 4.9 | 0.483 | |
Adequate vitamin A intake (above the recommended intake of vitamin A, but below the upper limit) | 0.707 | ||||||
2019 | 5 (9.0) | 10 (7.5) | 11 (9.6) | 18 (11.1) | 2.2 | 0.676 | |
2020 | 1 (6.0) | 6 (8.2) | 13 (8.6) | 5 (5.1) | -0.9 | 0.888 | |
Skipping breakfast (≥5 day/wk) | 0.043 | ||||||
2019 | 14 (22.1) | 52 (39.8) | 36 (33.1) | 44 (29.6) | 7.4 | 0.358 | |
2020 | 13 (56.5) | 35 (36.8) | 51 (40.4) | 31 (29.9) | -26.6 | 0.073 | |
Excessive sodium intake (>2,300 mg/day of sodium intake) | 0.130 | ||||||
2019 | 39 (74.4) | 95 (69.6) | 88 (61.3) | 88 (61.3) | -13.1 | 0.285 | |
2020 | 14 (52.5) | 49 (51.2) | 90 (71.3) | 64 (68.3) | 15.8 | 0.271 | |
Excessive fat intake (>30 E%) | 0.420 | ||||||
2019 | 11 (23.2) | 35 (26.3) | 30 (25.3) | 37 (22.8) | -0.4 | 0.958 | |
2020 | 5 (29.1) | 29 (29.9) | 42 (32.3) | 20 (18.2) | -10.9 | 0.336 | |
Excessive sugar intake (≥10 E%) | 0.620 | ||||||
2019 | 29 (58.7) | 78 (57.9) | 92 (68.3) | 100 (65.0) | 6.3 | 0.490 | |
2020 | 12 (53.5) | 52 (63.5) | 77 (59.6) | 69 (67.4) | 13.9 | 0.254 | |
Soft drink consumption (≥5 times/wk) | 0.250 | ||||||
2019 | 5 (8.4) | 14 (11.9) | 7 (5.2) | 10 (6.0) | -2.4 | 0.580 | |
2020 | 5 (31.3) | 12 (13.9) | 23 (15.9) | 12 (10.6) | -20.8 | 0.179 | |
Eating out (≥1/day) | 0.352 | ||||||
2019 | 16 (41.1) | 53 (41.7) | 55 (48.5) | 70 (47.9) | 6.8 | 0.535 | |
2020 | 8 (21.6) | 31 (34.6) | 46 (36.3) | 39 (42.7) | 21.1 | 0.056 |
Values are presented as weighted mean (95% confidence interval) for numerical data and unweighted frequency (weighted %) for categorical data. COVID-19, coronavirus 2019; RAE, retinol activity equivalents.
Values are presented as unweighted frequency (weighted %) taking into account the sampling method. COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019; DID, difference in difference.